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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Modular building" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

A modular building is a prefabricated building that consists of repeated sections called modules.^[1] Modularity involves constructing sections away from the building site, then delivering them to the intended site. Installation of the prefabricated sections is completed on site. Prefabricated sections are sometimes placed using a crane. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or stacked, allowing for a variety of configurations and styles. After placement, the modules are joined together using inter-module connections, also known as inter-connections. The inter-connections tie the individual modules together to form the overall building structure.^[2]

Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Modular buildings are used in remote and rural areas where conventional construction may not be reasonable or possible, for example, the Halley VI accommodation pods used for a BAS Antarctic expedition.^[3] Other uses have included churches, health care facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants and cruise ship construction. They can also be used in areas that have weather concerns, such as hurricanes. Modular buildings are often used to provide temporary facilities, including toilets and ablutions at events. The portability of the buildings makes them popular with hire companies and clients alike. The use of modular buildings enables events to be held at locations where existing facilities are unavailable, or unable to support the number of event attendees.

Construction is offsite, using lean manufacturing techniques to prefabricate single or multi-story buildings in deliverable module sections. Often, modules are based around standard 20 foot containers, using the same dimensions, structures, building and stacking/placing techniques, but with smooth (instead of corrugated) walls, glossy white paint, and provisions for windows, power, potable water, sewage lines, telecommunications and air conditioning. Permanent Modular Construction (PMC) buildings are manufactured in a controlled setting and can be constructed of wood, steel, or concrete. Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules' construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months. PMC modules can be integrated into site built projects or stand alone and can be delivered with MEP, fixtures and interior finishes.

The buildings are 60% to 90% completed offsite in a factory-controlled environment, and transported and assembled at the final building site. This can comprise the entire building or be components or subassemblies of larger structures. In many cases, modular contractors work with traditional general contractors to exploit the resources and advantages of each type of construction. Completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a crane.^[4] Placement of the modules may take from several hours to several days. Off-site construction running in parallel to site preparation providing a shorter time to project completion is one of the common selling points of modular construction. Modular construction timeline

Permanent modular buildings are built to meet or exceed the same building codes and standards as site-built structures and the same architect-specified materials used in conventionally constructed buildings are used in modular construction projects. PMC can have as many stories as building codes allow. Unlike relocatable buildings, PMC structures are intended to remain in one location for the duration of their useful life.

The entire process of modular construction places significance on the design stage. This is where practices such as Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) are used to ensure that assembly tolerances are controlled throughout manufacture and assembly on site. It is vital that there is enough allowance in the design to allow the assembly to take up any "slack" or misalignment of components. The use of advanced CAD systems, 3D printing and manufacturing control systems are important for modular construction to be successful. This is quite unlike on-site construction where the tradesman can often make the part to suit any particular installation.

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  Bulk materials
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  Walls attached to floor
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  Ceiling drywalled in spray booth
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  Roof set in place
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  Roof shingled and siding installed
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  Ready for delivery to site
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  Two-story modular dwelling
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  Pratt Modular Home in Tyler Texas
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  Pratt Modular Home kitchen
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  Pratt Modular Home in Tyler Texas

The development of factory facilities for modular homes requires significant upfront investment. To help address housing shortages in the 2010s, the United Kingdom Government (via Homes England) invested in modular housing initiatives. Several UK companies (for example, Ilke Homes, L&G Modular Homes, House by Urban Splash, Modulous, TopHat and Lighthouse) were established to develop modular homes as an alternative to traditionally-built residences, but failed as they could not book revenues quickly enough to cover the costs of establishing manufacturing facilities.

IIke Homes opened a factory in Knaresborough, Yorkshire in 2018, and Homes England invested £30m in November 2019,^[5] and a further £30m in September 2021.^[6] Despite a further fund-raising round, raising £100m in December 2022,^[7][8] Ilke Homes went into administration on 30 June 2023,^[9][10] with most of the company's 1,150 staff made redundant,^[11] and debts of £320m,^[12] including £68m owed to Homes England.^[13]

In 2015 Legal & General launched a modular homes operation, L&G Modular Homes, opening a 550,000 sq ft factory in Sherburn-in-Elmet, near Selby in Yorkshire.^[14] The company incurred large losses as it invested in its factory before earning any revenues; by 2019, it had lost over £100m.^[15] Sales revenues from a Selby project, plus schemes in Kent and West Sussex, started to flow in 2022, by which time the business's total losses had grown to £174m.^[16] Production was halted in May 2023, with L&G blaming local planning delays and the COVID-19 pandemic for its failure to grow its sales pipeline.^[17][18] The enterprise incurred total losses over seven years of £295m.^[19]

Some home buyers and some lending institutions resist consideration of modular homes as equivalent in value to site-built homes.^{[citation needed]} While the homes themselves may be of equivalent quality, entrenched zoning regulations and psychological marketplace factors may create hurdles for buyers or builders of modular homes and should be considered as part of the decision-making process when exploring this type of home as a living and/or investment option. In the UK and Australia, modular homes have become accepted in some regional areas; however, they are not commonly built in major cities. Modular homes are becoming increasingly common in Japanese urban areas, due to improvements in design and quality, speed and compactness of onsite assembly, as well as due to lowering costs and ease of repair after earthquakes. Recent innovations allow modular buildings to be indistinguishable from site-built structures.^[20] Surveys have shown that individuals can rarely tell the difference between a modular home and a site-built home.^[21]

Differences include the building codes that govern the construction, types of material used and how they are appraised by banks for lending purposes. Modular homes are built to either local or state building codes as opposed to manufactured homes, which are also built in a factory but are governed by a federal building code.^[22] The codes that govern the construction of modular homes are exactly the same codes that govern the construction of site-constructed homes.^{[citation needed]} In the United States, all modular homes are constructed according to the International Building Code (IBC), IRC, BOCA or the code that has been adopted by the local jurisdiction.^{[citation needed]} In some states, such as California, mobile homes must still be registered yearly, like vehicles or standard trailers, with the Department of Motor Vehicles or other state agency. This is true even if the owners remove the axles and place it on a permanent foundation.^[23]

A mobile home should have a small metal tag on the outside of each section. If a tag cannot be located, details about the home can be found in the electrical panel box. This tag should also reveal a manufacturing date.^{[citation needed]} Modular homes do not have metal tags on the outside but will have a dataplate installed inside the home, usually under the kitchen sink or in a closet. The dataplate will provide information such as the manufacturer, third party inspection agency, appliance information, and manufacture date.

The materials used in modular buildings are of the same quality and durability as those used in traditional construction, preserving characteristics such as acoustic insulation and energy efficiency, as well as allowing for attractive and innovative designs thanks to their versatility.^[24] Most commonly used are steel, wood and concrete.^[25]

• Steel: Because it is easily moldable, it allows for innovation in design and aesthetics.
• Wood: Wood is an essential part of most modular buildings. Thanks to its lightness, it facilitates the work of assembling and moving the prefabricated modules.
• Concrete: Concrete offers a solid structure that is ideal for the structural reinforcement of permanent modular buildings. It is increasingly being used as a base material in this type of building, thanks to its various characteristics such as fire resistance, energy savings, greater acoustic insulation, and durability.^[26]

Wood-frame floors, walls and roof are often utilized. Some modular homes include brick or stone exteriors, granite counters and steeply pitched roofs. Modulars can be designed to sit on a perimeter foundation or basement. In contrast, mobile homes are constructed with a steel chassis that is integral to the integrity of the floor system. Modular buildings can be custom built to a client's specifications. Current designs include multi-story units, multi-family units and entire apartment complexes. The negative stereotype commonly associated with mobile homes has prompted some manufacturers to start using the term "off-site construction."

New modular offerings include other construction methods such as cross-laminated timber frames.^[27]

Mobile homes often require special lenders.^[28]

Modular homes on the other hand are financed as site built homes with a construction loan

Typically, modular dwellings are built to local, state or council code, resulting in dwellings from a given manufacturing facility having differing construction standards depending on the final destination of the modules.^[29] The most important zones that manufacturers have to take into consideration are local wind, heat, and snow load zones.^{[citation needed]} For example, homes built for final assembly in a hurricane-prone, earthquake or flooding area may include additional bracing to meet local building codes. Steel and/or wood framing are common options for building a modular home.

Some US courts have ruled that zoning restrictions applicable to mobile homes do not apply to modular homes since modular homes are designed to have a permanent foundation.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, in the US, valuation differences between modular homes and site-built homes are often negligible in real estate appraisal practice; modular homes can, in some market areas, (depending on local appraisal practices per Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice) be evaluated the same way as site-built dwellings of similar quality. In Australia, manufactured home parks are governed by additional legislation that does not apply to permanent modular homes. Possible developments in equivalence between modular and site-built housing types for the purposes of real estate appraisals, financing and zoning may increase the sales of modular homes over time.^[30]

The Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme (abbreviated and more commonly referred to as CLASP) was formed in England in 1957 to combine the resources of local authorities with the purpose of developing a prefabricated school building programme. Initially developed by Charles Herbert Aslin, the county architect for Hertfordshire, the system was used as a model for several other counties, most notably Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. CLASP's popularity in these coal mining areas was in part because the system permitted fairly straightforward replacement of subsidence-damaged sections of building.

Modular homes are designed to be stronger than traditional homes by, for example, replacing nails with screws, adding glue to joints, and using 8–10% more lumber than conventional housing.^[31] This is to help the modules maintain their structural integrity as they are transported on trucks to the construction site. However, there are few studies on the response of modular buildings to transport and handling stresses. It is therefore presently difficult to predict transport induced damage.^[1]

When FEMA studied the destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in Dade County Florida, they concluded that modular and masonry homes fared best compared to other construction.^[32]

The CE mark is a construction norm that guarantees the user of mechanical resistance and strength of the structure. It is a label given by European community empowered authorities for end-to-end process mastering and traceability.^{[citation needed]}

All manufacturing operations are being monitored and recorded:

• Suppliers have to be known and certified,
• Raw materials and goods being sourced are to be recorded by batch used,
• Elementary products are recorded and their quality is monitored,
• Assembly quality is managed and assessed on a step by step basis,
• When a modular unit is finished, a whole set of tests are performed and if quality standards are met, a unique number and EC stamp is attached to and on the unit.

This ID and all the details are recorded in a database, At any time, the producer has to be able to answer and provide all the information from each step of the production of a single unit, The EC certification guaranties standards in terms of durability, resistance against wind and earthquakes.^{[citation needed]}

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Manufactured housing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Manufactured housing (commonly known as mobile homes in the United States) is a type of prefabricated housing that is largely assembled in factories and then transported to sites of use. The definition of the term in the United States is regulated by federal law (Code of Federal Regulations, 24 CFR 3280): "Manufactured homes are built as dwelling units of at least 320 square feet (30 m²) in size with a permanent chassis to assure the initial and continued transportability of the home."^[1] The requirement to have a wheeled chassis permanently attached differentiates "manufactured housing" from other types of prefabricated homes, such as modular homes.

According to the Manufactured Housing Institute's National Communities Council (MHINCC), manufactured homes^[2]

are homes built entirely in the factory under a federal building code administered by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). The Federal Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards (commonly known as the HUD Code) went into effect June 15, 1976. Manufactured homes may be single- or multi-section and are transported to the site and installed.

The MHINCC distinguishes among several types of factory-built housing: manufactured homes, modular homes, panelized homes, pre-cut homes, and mobile homes.

From the same source, mobile home "is the term used for manufactured homes produced prior to June 15, 1976, when the HUD Code went into effect."^[2] Despite the formal definition, mobile home and trailer are still common terms in the United States for this type of housing.

The original focus of this form of housing was its ability to relocate easily. Units were initially marketed primarily to people whose lifestyle required mobility. However, beginning in the 1950s, these homes began to be marketed primarily as an inexpensive form of housing designed to be set up and left in a location for long periods of time, or even permanently installed with a masonry foundation. Previously, units had been eight feet or less in width, but in 1956, the 10-foot (3.0 m) wide home was introduced. This helped solidify the line between mobile and house/travel trailers, since the smaller units could be moved simply with an automobile, but the larger, wider units required the services of a professional trucking company. In the 1960s and '70s, the homes became even longer and wider, making the mobility of the units more difficult. Today, when a factory-built home is moved to a location, it is usually kept there permanently. The mobility of the units has decreased considerably.

The factory-built homes of the past developed a negative stereotype because of their lower cost and the tendency for their value to depreciate more quickly than site-built homes. The tendency of these homes to rapidly depreciate in resale value made using them as collateral for loans far riskier than traditional home loans. Loan terms were usually limited to less than the 30-year term typical of the general home-loan market, and interest rates were considerably higher. In other words, these home loans resembled motor vehicle loans far more than traditional home mortgages. They have been consistently linked to lower-income families, which has led to prejudice and zoning restrictions, which include limitations on the number and density of homes permitted on any given site, minimum size requirements, limitations on exterior colors and finishes, and foundation mandates.

Many jurisdictions do not allow the placement of any additional factory-built homes, while others have strongly limited or forbidden all single-wide models, which tend to depreciate more rapidly than modern double-wide models. The derogatory concept of a "trailer park" is typically older single-wide homes occupying small, rented lots and remaining on wheels, even if the home stays in place for decades.

Modern homes, especially modular homes, belie this image and can be identical in appearance to site-built homes. Newer homes, particularly double-wides, tend to be built to much higher standards than their predecessors. This has led to a reduction in the rate of value depreciation of many used units.

Although great strides have been made in terms of quality, manufactured homes do still struggle with construction problems. Author Wes Johnson has pointed out that the HUD code which governs manufactured homes desperately needs to be updated, quality control at manufacturing facilities are often lax, and set-up issues often compromise even a well-made manufactured home. Johnson states buyers need to be exceptionally cautious if they are entertaining the idea of purchasing any manufactured home by carefully checking it for defects before signing the contract and supervising the set-up process closely. These homes in the modern age are built to be beautiful and last longer than the typical old trailers.^{[citation needed]}

When FEMA studied the destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in Dade County Florida, they concluded that modular and masonry homes fared best compared to other construction.^[3]

While manufactured homes are considered to be affordable housing, older models can be some of the most expensive in the nation to heat due to energy inefficiency.^[4] High-performance manufactured housing uses less energy and therefore increases life-cycle affordability by decreasing operating costs. High-performance housing is not only energy efficient, but also attractive, functional, water-efficient, resilient to wind, seismic forces, and moisture penetration, and has healthy indoor environmental quality. Achieving high-performance involves integrated, whole building design, involving many components, not one single technology. High–performance manufactured housing should also include energy efficient appliances, such as Energy Star qualified appliances.^[4] Energy Star requires ample insulation: 2x6 walls: R21, roof: R40, floor: R33.

Both types of homes - manufactured and modular - are commonly referred to as factory-built housing, but they are not identical. Modular homes are built to International Residential Code (IRC) code. Modular homes can be transported on flatbed trucks rather than being towed, and can lack axles and an automotive-type frame. However, some modular houses are towed behind a semi-truck or toter on a frame similar to that of a trailer. The house is usually in two pieces and is hauled by two separate trucks. Each frame has five or more axles, depending on the size of the house. Once the house has reached its location, the axles and the tongue of the frame are then removed, and the house is set on a concrete foundation by a large crane. Some modern modular homes, once fully assembled, are indistinguishable from site-built homes. In addition, modular homes:

• must conform to the same local, state and regional building codes as homes built on-site;
• are treated the same by banks as homes built on-site. They are easily refinanced, for example;
• must be structurally approved by inspectors;
• can be of any size, although the block sections from which they are assembled are uniformly sized;^[5][6]

Manufactured homes have several standard requirements that are more stringent than International Residential Code homes.

Fire Protection

A National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) study from July 2011 shows that occurrence of fires is lower in manufactured housing and the injury rate is lower in manufactured housing. The justification behind the superior fire safety is due to the following higher standard requirements:

• The HUD standard requires a flame spread of 25 or less in water heater and furnace compartments.
• The HUD standard requires a flame spread of 50 or less on the wall behind the range.
• The HUD standard requires a flame spread of 75 or less on the ceilings.
• The HUD standard requires a flame spread of 25 or less to protect the bottoms and side of kitchen cabinets around the range.
• The HUD standard requires additional protection of cabinets above the range.
• The HUD standard requires trim larger than 6" to meet flame spread requirements.
• The HUD standard requires smoke detectors in the general living area.
• The HUD standard requires 2 exterior doors.
• The HUD standard requires bedroom doors to be within 35 feet of an exterior door.

The San Francisco Bay Area, located in Northern California, is known for its high real estate prices, making manufactured housing an increasingly popular alternative to traditional real estate.^[7] It is mainly the value of the land that makes real estate in this area so expensive. As of May 2011, the median price of a home in Santa Clara was $498,000,^[8] while the most expensive manufactured home with all the premium features was only $249,000.^[9] This drastic price difference is due to the fact that manufactured homes are typically placed in communities where individuals do not own the land, but instead pay a monthly site fee. This enables a consumer, who could otherwise not afford to live in the Bay Area, the opportunity to own a new home in this location. There are various communities of manufactured homes in the Bay Area, the largest being Casa de Amigos, located in Sunnyvale, California.

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  Bulk material storage
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  Construction starts with the frame
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  Interior wall assemblies are attached
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  Exterior wall assemblies are set in place
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  Roof assembly is set atop the house
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  Drywall completed
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  House is ready for delivery to site

In Australia these homes are commonly known as transportable homes, relocatable homes or prefabricated homes (not to be confused with the American meaning of the term). They are not as common as in the US, but the industry is expected to grow as this method of construction becomes more accepted.

Manufactured home parks refer to housing estates where the house owner rents the land instead of owning it. This is quite common in Queensland in both the form of tourist parks and over fifty estates. The term transportable homes tends to be used to refer to houses that are built on land that is owned by the house owner.^{[citation needed]}

Typically the homes are built in regional areas where the cost of organizing tradespeople and materials is higher than in the cities. In particular prefabricated homes have been popular in mining towns or other towns experiencing demand for new housing in excess of what can be handled by local builders. This method of construction is governed by state construction legislation and is subject to local council approval and homeowners' warranty or home warranty insurance.

A manufactured home is built entirely inside a huge, climate-controlled factory by a team of craftsmen. The first step in the process is the flooring, which is built in sections, each attached to a permanent chassis with its own wheels and secured for transport upon the home's completion. Depending on the size of the house and the floorplan's layout, there may be two, three or even four sections. The flooring sections have heating, electrical and plumbing connections pre-installed before they are finished with laminate, tile or hardwood. Next, the walls are constructed on a flat level surface with insulation and interior Sheetrock before being lifted by crane into position and secured to the floor sections. The interior ceilings and roof struts are next, vapor sealed and secured to each section's wall frame before being shingled. Then, the exterior siding is added, along with the installation of doors and windows. Finally, interior finishing, such as sealing the drywall, is completed, along with fixture installation and finishing the electrical and plumbing connections. The exposed portions of each section, where they will eventually be joined together, are wrapped in plastic to protect them for transport.

With all the building site prep work completed, the building will be delivered by trucks towing the individual sections on their permanent chassis. The sections will be joined together securely, and all final plumbing and electrical connections are made before a decorative skirt or facade is applied to the bottom exterior of the house, hiding the chassis and finishing off the look of the home.

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