Using UV Lights to Minimize Microbial Growth

Using UV Lights to Minimize Microbial Growth

Importance of Multimeter Selection for Mobile Home HVAC Systems

Understanding microbial growth in mobile home environments is a crucial aspect of ensuring the health and safety of residents. Mobile homes, like any other living spaces, are susceptible to the proliferation of various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. These microbes can thrive due to factors such as moisture, temperature fluctuations, and limited ventilation. Fortunately, recent advancements have introduced effective methods to combat microbial growth; one such method is the use of ultraviolet (UV) lights.


UV lights have long been recognized for their germicidal properties. They work by emitting UV-C light at specific wavelengths that can penetrate the cell walls of microorganisms, disrupting their DNA or RNA and rendering them inactive or unable to reproduce. Space constraints in mobile homes require innovative HVAC installation techniques mobile home hvac systems prices energy conservation. This technology has been effectively used in various settings, from hospitals to water treatment facilities, proving its efficacy in minimizing microbial presence.


In mobile home environments, the application of UV lights can be particularly beneficial due to the unique challenges these structures pose. Mobile homes often experience higher humidity levels and less natural ventilation compared to traditional houses. This makes them more prone to mold growth and bacterial accumulation. Installing UV lights in key areas such as HVAC systems or water filtration units can help mitigate these issues by continuously disinfecting air and surfaces.


Moreover, portable UV devices offer flexibility for residents looking to tackle microbial growth on a smaller scale. Handheld UV wands and box-style sanitizers provide convenient options for disinfecting surfaces like countertops, bathroom fixtures, or even electronic devices-common hotspots for germs in any household setting.


However, while UV light technology presents a promising solution to microbial control in mobile homes, it is essential for users to follow safety guidelines strictly. Direct exposure to UV-C light can be harmful to human skin and eyes; therefore, installations should be done with care or preferably by professionals who understand how to optimize their placement without posing risks to occupants.


In conclusion, using UV lights offers an innovative approach to minimizing microbial growth in mobile home environments-a setting where traditional cleaning methods may sometimes fall short due to structural limitations. By integrating this technology wisely and safely into daily living practices, homeowners can enjoy improved indoor air quality and reduced health risks associated with unwanted microbial guests.

Key Features to Look for in a Multimeter for HVAC Applications —

The use of ultraviolet (UV) light as a means to disinfect and sterilize surfaces, water, and air has garnered significant attention, especially in our ongoing battle against microbial growth. UV light is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays. Its germicidal properties have been harnessed for over a century, offering an effective and chemical-free solution for minimizing microbial presence.


At the heart of UV disinfection lies its ability to damage the nucleic acids within microorganisms. When microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi are exposed to UV-C light-ranging from 200 to 280 nanometers-it penetrates their cell walls and disrupts their DNA or RNA structure. This disruption effectively halts replication processes, rendering the microorganisms inactive or killing them outright. Unlike traditional chemical methods, UV disinfection does not leave behind harmful residues, making it an environmentally friendly option.


One of the primary advantages of using UV light is its efficacy against a broad spectrum of pathogens, including those resistant to conventional disinfection methods. For instance, in water treatment facilities, UV lamps are often employed to destroy pathogens like Cryptosporidium and Giardia that are resistant to chlorine-based treatments. Similarly, in healthcare settings where sterilization is paramount, UV devices can be used to sanitize surgical tools and operating rooms without exposing patients or staff to toxic chemicals.


Despite its effectiveness, there are limitations to consider when employing UV technology for disinfection. The intensity and exposure time required for optimal results depend on the specific application and the microorganism being targeted. Furthermore, UV light has limited penetration abilities; it is most effective on flat surfaces directly exposed to the rays. Shadowed areas or materials that absorb or reflect UV light may not receive adequate exposure for thorough disinfection.


Advancements in technology have led to innovative applications of UV light across various industries. Portable handheld devices allow individuals to disinfect personal belongings on-the-go while larger installations can continuously purify air circulating through HVAC systems in buildings. These innovations not only improve hygiene standards but also help mitigate the spread of infectious diseases-a matter more critical now than ever before.


In conclusion, utilizing UV lights as a method for minimizing microbial growth presents a compelling intersection between science and practical application. Its ability to offer rapid disinfection without chemical residues makes it particularly appealing across diverse sectors-from healthcare and hospitality to public transportation systems-where maintaining high levels of cleanliness is paramount. As we continue exploring new frontiers in disinfection technologies, embracing solutions like UV lighting will undoubtedly play an increasingly vital role in safeguarding public health globally.

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Types of Measurements Required in Mobile Home HVAC Checks

The integration of ultraviolet (UV) lights in mobile home HVAC systems represents a significant advancement in the quest for healthier indoor environments. Mobile homes, often characterized by their compact spaces and proximity to outdoor elements, can benefit profoundly from this technology. The primary allure of UV lights in HVAC systems lies in their ability to minimize microbial growth, thereby enhancing air quality and promoting overall health.


Microbial growth within HVAC systems is not merely a nuisance; it poses genuine health risks. Molds, bacteria, and viruses can proliferate unchecked within these systems, eventually dispersing throughout the living space. This not only leads to unpleasant odors but also exacerbates respiratory issues such as asthma and allergies. In a mobile home setting, where ventilation might be limited compared to larger structures, the impact of poor air quality becomes even more pronounced.


UV lights operate by emitting short-wave ultraviolet light that penetrates the cell walls of microorganisms. This radiation effectively disrupts their DNA structure, rendering them inactive or dead. By installing UV lights within an HVAC system, homeowners can drastically reduce the presence of harmful pathogens recirculating through their air supply.


Beyond health benefits, integrating UV lights into mobile home HVAC systems offers several practical advantages. First, it can lead to improved energy efficiency. As microbial buildups are minimized on coils and other components within the system, airflow is optimized and energy consumption reduced. This results in lower utility bills-a crucial consideration for many mobile home residents who seek cost-effective living solutions.


Furthermore, maintenance requirements are diminished with UV light integration. Traditional cleaning methods for HVAC components often involve harsh chemicals or labor-intensive procedures that may not be feasible for all homeowners. With UV technology continuously working to inhibit microbial growth, there is less need for frequent deep cleanings or chemical applications.


Moreover, adopting this technology aligns with broader environmental goals by reducing reliance on chemical disinfectants and cleaners that could contribute to environmental degradation over time. As society increasingly gravitates towards sustainable solutions across various sectors-including housing-the incorporation of environmentally friendly technologies like UV lighting becomes particularly pertinent.


In conclusion, employing UV lights within mobile home HVAC systems offers multiple layers of benefits: improved indoor air quality through reduced microbial presence; enhanced energy efficiency leading to economic savings; decreased need for chemical-based maintenance processes; and alignment with eco-conscious practices aimed at preserving our planet's health for future generations. For those residing in mobile homes seeking ways to ensure cleaner living spaces without compromising on convenience or sustainability principles-integrating UV lighting stands out as an intelligent choice worth considering seriously today more than ever before!

Types of Measurements Required in Mobile Home HVAC Checks

Comparing Digital vs Analog Multimeters for HVAC Use

When discussing the use of UV lights for minimizing microbial growth, it is imperative to consider both installation considerations and best practices. Ultraviolet (UV) light technology has become an increasingly popular method for controlling microbial presence in various environments, from healthcare facilities to food processing plants. However, its effectiveness largely depends on thoughtful implementation and adherence to specific guidelines.


Firstly, understanding the type of UV light most suitable for your needs is crucial. There are primarily three types of UV light: UVA, UVB, and UVC. For microbial control, UVC is the most effective due to its germicidal properties. It works by disrupting the DNA or RNA of microorganisms, rendering them inactive and unable to reproduce. Therefore, when selecting a system, ensure that it emits UVC at an optimal wavelength of around 254 nanometers.


The location of installation plays a pivotal role in maximizing the efficacy of UV lights. It's essential to identify areas with high microbial load or surfaces frequently exposed to contamination. In HVAC systems, positioning UVC lamps near coils and drain pans can significantly reduce mold growth and improve air quality. Meanwhile, in healthcare settings or laboratories, placing UV lights in high-touch areas or within air purification systems can help maintain sterile environments.


Distance and exposure time are critical factors that influence the success rate of microbial eradication using UV lights. The closer the light source is to the target surface or air space-without obstructing airflow-the more effective it will be in deactivating pathogens. Additionally, ensuring adequate exposure time is vital; insufficient duration may not fully neutralize harmful microorganisms.


Safety is another paramount consideration during installation. Direct exposure to UVC radiation can cause skin burns and eye injuries; hence appropriate shielding measures should be implemented. Installing motion sensors that deactivate the lights when people enter a room can enhance safety protocols significantly.


Regular maintenance and monitoring are best practices that ensure sustained performance over time. This includes routine checks for dust accumulation on bulbs that might hinder their efficiency as well as replacing lamps according to manufacturers' recommendations since their intensity diminishes with use.


Lastly, integrating UV light systems with existing cleaning protocols rather than relying solely on them provides an additional layer of protection against microbial growth without compromising overall hygiene standards.


In conclusion, while using UV lights offers promising advantages in reducing microbial presence across varied settings-success hinges upon careful consideration during installation alongside ongoing adherence to best practices like strategic placement based on intended application areas along with consistent maintenance procedures aimed at preserving operational integrity over time all done under strict compliance guidelines designed around human safety requirements ensuring maximum benefit realization safely achieved effectively too!

Safety Considerations When Using Multimeters in Mobile Homes

Ultraviolet (UV) light systems have emerged as a powerful tool in minimizing microbial growth across various settings, including healthcare facilities, water treatment plants, and even residential spaces. These systems offer an effective way to reduce the spread of bacteria and viruses, enhancing sanitation and promoting health. However, like any advanced technology, UV light systems require proper handling to ensure safety and maintain effectiveness. Understanding safety precautions and maintenance tips is crucial for anyone utilizing these systems.


First and foremost, safety must be a priority when operating UV light systems. The primary hazard associated with UV light exposure is its potential to damage skin and eyes. Direct exposure can lead to skin burns or eye injuries such as photokeratitis, similar to sunburn but affecting the cornea. Therefore, it is essential always to use protective gear when working near active UV lights. This includes wearing gloves, long-sleeved clothing, and specialized eyewear designed to block UV radiation.


Another important safety precaution is ensuring that the area being treated by UV light is free of people during operation. Many modern systems are equipped with motion sensors that automatically shut off if movement is detected within the treated space; however, it's wise not to rely solely on this feature. Clear signage indicating that UV lights are in use can prevent accidental exposure.


In terms of maintenance, regular inspection of the UV system's components is necessary to maintain optimal performance. Bulbs should be checked regularly for signs of wear or damage since their effectiveness diminishes over time. Typically, manufacturers recommend replacing bulbs annually or after a certain number of operational hours-whichever comes first-to ensure consistent microbial control.


Keeping the equipment clean also plays a vital role in its efficacy. Dust and dirt can accumulate on the surface of bulbs and fixtures, obstructing UV rays from penetrating effectively into the environment or water source they are meant to sanitize. Cleaning protocols should involve gently wiping surfaces with alcohol-based cleaners while avoiding harsh chemicals that could damage components.


Moreover, it's essential to follow manufacturer guidelines regarding installation locations because improper placement can significantly impact efficiency. For instance, in air purification applications, positioning within ductwork must allow for sufficient contact time with passing air streams.


Finally, record-keeping cannot be overlooked in maintaining these systems effectively. Keeping detailed logs of usage times helps track when maintenance tasks like bulb replacement are due while also providing valuable data on system performance over time.


In conclusion, using UV lights to minimize microbial growth offers an innovative solution for achieving high sanitation standards across multiple environments-but only when implemented safely and maintained correctly. By prioritizing protective measures against direct exposure risks alongside diligent upkeep routines such as regular inspections and cleaning practices following manufacturer instructions-users can harness this technology's full potential without compromising health or efficiency.

In recent years, ultraviolet (UV) lights have gained significant attention as a potent tool for reducing microbial load, especially in environments where sanitation is paramount. The utilization of UV lights offers a promising strategy to minimize microbial growth, which can be particularly advantageous in healthcare settings, food processing facilities, and water treatment plants. Through the lens of various case studies, we can explore the effectiveness of this technology in creating safer and more hygienic environments.


One prominent case study examines the impact of UV light disinfection in hospital settings. Hospitals are high-risk areas for microbial transmission due to the constant influx of patients and healthcare workers. A study conducted in several hospitals highlighted that using UV-C light significantly reduced the presence of harmful microorganisms such as Clostridium difficile and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). By integrating UV light disinfection into their cleaning protocols, these hospitals reported a notable decrease in infection rates among patients, illustrating its effectiveness as an adjunctive tool alongside traditional cleaning methods.


Similarly, the food industry has explored UV lights as a non-chemical means to ensure product safety. In one particular study conducted at a poultry processing plant, researchers applied UV-C treatment on chicken carcasses. The results were promising; there was a substantial reduction in surface bacteria like Salmonella and Campylobacter. This finding suggests that implementing UV light technology could enhance food safety by minimizing pathogen levels without altering the sensory qualities of food products.


Water treatment is another domain where UV lights have shown great promise. Traditional chemical methods such as chlorination often leave undesirable by-products or tastes in treated water. A comparative study on municipal water supplies demonstrated that UV irradiation effectively eliminated pathogens like Cryptosporidium and Giardia without affecting water quality otherwise. Consequently, many municipalities are now considering or have already adopted this technology to provide clean drinking water while avoiding potential chemical contaminants.


While these case studies underscore the potential benefits of using UV lights to minimize microbial growth, it is important to recognize some limitations inherent to this approach. For instance, the efficacy of UV irradiation depends heavily on factors such as exposure time and distance from the light source. Additionally, surfaces must be directly exposed to receive adequate doses; shadows or obstructions can hinder performance.


In conclusion, case studies across different sectors consistently show that UV lights are effective tools for reducing microbial loads and enhancing sanitation standards. From hospitals to food processing plants and water treatment facilities, this technology provides a compelling solution for minimizing harmful microorganisms without relying solely on chemicals. As research continues to advance our understanding and application of UV light disinfection systems, it is clear that they offer an invaluable asset in our ongoing quest for safer and cleaner environments.

Tips for Maintaining and Calibrating Your Multimeter

In the ever-evolving world of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) technology, one area that has garnered significant attention is the use of ultraviolet (UV) lights to combat microbial growth. As we continue to prioritize indoor air quality for health and comfort, UV light technology stands at the forefront of innovation, offering a promising solution to minimize the spread of harmful pathogens.


The primary function of UV lights in HVAC systems is to disrupt the DNA of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and mold spores. By doing so, these organisms are rendered unable to reproduce and cause harm. This method of sterilization is not entirely new; it has been used in hospitals and laboratories for decades. However, its application in residential and commercial HVAC systems is gaining traction as people become more aware of indoor air pollution's impact on health.


One significant trend in UV light technology is the integration with smart home systems. Modern UV installations can be controlled remotely via smartphones or integrated into existing smart home networks. This allows homeowners and facility managers to monitor their HVAC systems' efficiency and adjust settings based on real-time data, ensuring optimal operation while minimizing energy consumption.


Moreover, advancements in LED UV lighting are making these systems more energy-efficient than traditional mercury vapor lamps. LED UV lights have a longer lifespan and consume less power while maintaining high efficacy levels in neutralizing microbes. This shift not only makes them an environmentally friendly option but also reduces maintenance costs over time.


Another exciting development is the combination of UV lights with other filtration technologies. For instance, some systems now pair UV-C light with HEPA filters or activated carbon filters. While HEPA filters capture airborne particles down to 0.3 microns with high efficiency, activated carbon removes odors and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The addition of UV-C provides an extra layer of protection by targeting pathogens that pass through these filters.


Looking ahead, future innovations may include enhanced sensor technologies that detect microbial load within HVAC systems and activate UV lights only when necessary. This targeted approach could further improve energy savings while ensuring air remains clean.


As awareness regarding indoor environmental quality grows alongside concerns about respiratory illnesses exacerbated by poor air quality-like asthma or allergies-the demand for advanced solutions like HVAC-integrated UV lighting will likely increase. Industry experts predict this technology will become standard practice rather than an optional upgrade as building codes evolve towards stricter standards for indoor environments.


In conclusion, utilizing UV lights within HVAC frameworks presents a compelling opportunity to significantly reduce microbial presence indoors effectively without compromising energy efficiency or comfort levels-a win-win scenario aligning well with contemporary demands for healthier living spaces supported by sustainable practices.

A DuPont R-134a refrigerant

A refrigerant is a working fluid used in cooling, heating or reverse cooling and heating of air conditioning systems and heat pumps where they undergo a repeated phase transition from a liquid to a gas and back again. Refrigerants are heavily regulated because of their toxicity and flammability[1] and the contribution of CFC and HCFC refrigerants to ozone depletion[2] and that of HFC refrigerants to climate change.[3]

Refrigerants are used in a direct expansion (DX- Direct Expansion) system (circulating system)to transfer energy from one environment to another, typically from inside a building to outside (or vice versa) commonly known as an air conditioner cooling only or cooling & heating reverse DX system or heat pump a heating only DX cycle. Refrigerants can carry 10 times more energy per kg than water, and 50 times more than air.

Refrigerants are controlled substances and classified by International safety regulations ISO 817/5149, AHRAE 34/15 & BS EN 378 due to high pressures (700–1,000 kPa (100–150 psi)), extreme temperatures (−50 °C [−58 °F] to over 100 °C [212 °F]), flammability (A1 class non-flammable, A2/A2L class flammable and A3 class extremely flammable/explosive) and toxicity (B1-low, B2-medium & B3-high). The regulations relate to situations when these refrigerants are released into the atmosphere in the event of an accidental leak not while circulated.

Refrigerants (controlled substances) must only be handled by qualified/certified engineers for the relevant classes (in the UK, C&G 2079 for A1-class and C&G 6187-2 for A2/A2L & A3-class refrigerants).

Refrigerants (A1 class only) Due to their non-flammability, A1 class non-flammability, non-explosivity, and non-toxicity, non-explosivity they have been used in open systems (consumed when used) like fire extinguishers, inhalers, computer rooms fire extinguishing and insulation, etc.) since 1928.

History

[edit]
The observed stabilization of HCFC concentrations (left graphs) and the growth of HFCs (right graphs) in earth's atmosphere.

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked.[4]

In 1928 Thomas Midgley Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon (R-12). The name is a trademark name owned by DuPont (now Chemours) for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. Following the discovery of better synthesis methods, CFCs such as R-11,[5] R-12,[6] R-123[5] and R-502[7] dominated the market.

Phasing out of CFCs

[edit]
See also: Montreal Protocol

In the mid-1970s, scientists discovered that CFCs were causing major damage to the ozone layer that protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation, and to the ozone holes over polar regions.[8][9] This led to the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 which aimed to phase out CFCs and HCFC[10] but did not address the contributions that HFCs made to climate change. The adoption of HCFCs such as R-22,[11][12][13] and R-123[5] was accelerated and so were used in most U.S. homes in air conditioners and in chillers[14] from the 1980s as they have a dramatically lower Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) than CFCs, but their ODP was still not zero which led to their eventual phase-out.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) such as R-134a,[15][16] R-407A,[17] R-407C,[18] R-404A,[7] R-410A[19] (a 50/50 blend of R-125/R-32) and R-507[20][21] were promoted as replacements for CFCs and HCFCs in the 1990s and 2000s. HFCs were not ozone-depleting but did have global warming potentials (GWPs) thousands of times greater than CO2 with atmospheric lifetimes that can extend for decades. This in turn, starting from the 2010s, led to the adoption in new equipment of Hydrocarbon and HFO (hydrofluoroolefin) refrigerants R-32,[22] R-290,[23] R-600a,[23] R-454B,[24] R-1234yf,[25][26] R-514A,[27] R-744 (CO2),[28] R-1234ze(E)[29] and R-1233zd(E),[30] which have both an ODP of zero and a lower GWP. Hydrocarbons and CO2 are sometimes called natural refrigerants because they can be found in nature.

The environmental organization Greenpeace provided funding to a former East German refrigerator company to research alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerants in 1992. The company developed a hydrocarbon mixture of propane and isobutane, or pure isobutane,[31] called "Greenfreeze", but as a condition of the contract with Greenpeace could not patent the technology, which led to widespread adoption by other firms.[32][33][34] Policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change however,[35][36] citing the flammability and explosive properties of the refrigerants,[37] and DuPont together with other companies blocked them in the U.S. with the U.S. EPA.[38][39]

Beginning on 14 November 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerants to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.[40] In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[41]

In 1996 Eurammon, a European non-profit initiative for natural refrigerants, was established and comprises European companies, institutions, and industry experts.[42][43][44]

In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In 2000 in the UK, the Ozone Regulations[45] came into force which banned the use of ozone-depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance from 2010 for virgin fluid and from 2015 for recycled fluid.[citation needed]

Addressing greenhouse gases

[edit]

With growing interest in natural refrigerants as alternatives to synthetic refrigerants such as CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.[41][46] Four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[47] It is estimated that almost 75 percent of the refrigeration and air conditioning sector has the potential to be converted to natural refrigerants.[48]

In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases (FCs and HFCs) to encourage to transition to natural refrigerants (such as hydrocarbons). It was reported in 2010 that some refrigerants are being used as recreational drugs, leading to an extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.[49]

From 2011 the European Union started to phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than 150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100-year warming potential of one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO2) such as the refrigerant HFC-134a (known as R-134a in North America) which has a GWP of 1526.[50] In the same year the EPA decided in favour of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[32][51][52]

A 2018 study by the nonprofit organization "Drawdown" put proper refrigerant management and disposal at the very top of the list of climate impact solutions, with an impact equivalent to eliminating over 17 years of US carbon dioxide emissions.[53]

In 2019 it was estimated that CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs were responsible for about 10% of direct radiative forcing from all long-lived anthropogenic greenhouse gases.[54] and in the same year the UNEP published new voluntary guidelines,[55] however many countries have not yet ratified the Kigali Amendment.

From early 2020 HFCs (including R-404A, R-134a and R-410A) are being superseded: Residential air-conditioning systems and heat pumps are increasingly using R-32. This still has a GWP of more than 600. Progressive devices use refrigerants with almost no climate impact, namely R-290 (propane), R-600a (isobutane) or R-1234yf (less flammable, in cars). In commercial refrigeration also CO2 (R-744) can be used.

Requirements and desirable properties

[edit]

A refrigerant needs to have: a boiling point that is somewhat below the target temperature (although boiling point can be adjusted by adjusting the pressure appropriately), a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form (which can also be adjusted by setting pressure appropriately), and a high critical temperature. Working pressures should ideally be containable by copper tubing, a commonly available material. Extremely high pressures should be avoided.[citation needed]

The ideal refrigerant would be: non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-flammable, with no ozone depletion and global warming potential. It should preferably be natural with well-studied and low environmental impact. Newer refrigerants address the issue of the damage that CFCs caused to the ozone layer and the contribution that HCFCs make to climate change, but some do raise issues relating to toxicity and/or flammability.[56]

Common refrigerants

[edit]

Refrigerants with very low climate impact

[edit]

With increasing regulations, refrigerants with a very low global warming potential are expected to play a dominant role in the 21st century,[57] in particular, R-290 and R-1234yf. Starting from almost no market share in 2018,[58] low GWPO devices are gaining market share in 2022.

Code Chemical Name GWP 20yr[59] GWP 100yr[59] Status Commentary
R-290 C3H8 Propane   3.3[60] Increasing use Low cost, widely available and efficient. They also have zero ozone depletion potential. Despite their flammability, they are increasingly used in domestic refrigerators and heat pumps. In 2010, about one-third of all household refrigerators and freezers manufactured globally used isobutane or an isobutane/propane blend, and this was expected to increase to 75% by 2020.[61]
R-600a HC(CH3)3 Isobutane   3.3 Widely used See R-290.
R-717 NH3 Ammonia 0 0[62] Widely used Commonly used before the popularisation of CFCs, it is again being considered but does suffer from the disadvantage of toxicity, and it requires corrosion-resistant components, which restricts its domestic and small-scale use. Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost.
R-1234yf HFO-1234yf C3H2F4 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene   <1   Less performance but also less flammable than R-290.[57] GM announced that it would start using "hydro-fluoro olefin", HFO-1234yf, in all of its brands by 2013.[63]
R-744 CO2 Carbon dioxide 1 1 In use Was used as a refrigerant prior to the discovery of CFCs (this was also the case for propane)[4] and now having a renaissance due to it being non-ozone depleting, non-toxic and non-flammable. It may become the working fluid of choice to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pumps. Coca-Cola has fielded CO2-based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is considering CO2 refrigeration.[64][65] Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to 130 bars (1,900 psi; 13,000 kPa), CO2 systems require highly resistant components, however these have already been developed for mass production in many sectors.

Most used

[edit]
Code Chemical Name Global warming potential 20yr[59] GWP 100yr[59] Status Commentary
R-32 HFC-32 CH2F2 Difluoromethane 2430 677 Widely used Promoted as climate-friendly substitute for R-134a and R-410A, but still with high climate impact. Has excellent heat transfer and pressure drop performance, both in condensation and vaporisation.[66] It has an atmospheric lifetime of nearly 5 years.[67] Currently used in residential and commercial air-conditioners and heat pumps.
R-134a HFC-134a CH2FCF3 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane 3790 1550 Widely used Most used in 2020 for hydronic heat pumps in Europe and the United States in spite of high GWP.[58] Commonly used in automotive air conditioners prior to phase out which began in 2012.
R-410A   50% R-32 / 50% R-125 (pentafluoroethane) Between 2430 (R-32) and 6350 (R-125) > 677 Widely Used Most used in split heat pumps / AC by 2018. Almost 100% share in the USA.[58] Being phased out in the US starting in 2022.[68][69]

Banned / Phased out

[edit]
Code Chemical Name Global warming potential 20yr[59] GWP 100yr[59] Status Commentary
R-11 CFC-11 CCl3F Trichlorofluoromethane 6900 4660 Banned Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996
R-12 CFC-12 CCl2F2 Dichlorodifluoromethane 10800 10200 Banned Also known as Freon, a widely used chlorofluorocarbon halomethane (CFC). Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996, and in developing countries (article 5 countries) in 2010.[70]
R-22 HCFC-22 CHClF2 Chlorodifluoromethane 5280 1760 Being phased out A widely used hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and powerful greenhouse gas with a GWP equal to 1810. Worldwide production of R-22 in 2008 was about 800 Gg per year, up from about 450 Gg per year in 1998. R-438A (MO-99) is a R-22 replacement.[71]
R-123 HCFC-123 CHCl2CF3 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane 292 79 US phase-out Used in large tonnage centrifugal chiller applications. All U.S. production and import of virgin HCFCs will be phased out by 2030, with limited exceptions.[72] R-123 refrigerant was used to retrofit some chiller that used R-11 refrigerant Trichlorofluoromethane. The production of R-11 was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996.[73]

Other

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Code Chemical Name Global warming potential 20yr[59] GWP 100yr[59] Commentary
R-152a HFC-152a CH3CHF2 1,1-Difluoroethane 506 138 As a compressed air duster
R-407C   Mixture of difluoromethane and pentafluoroethane and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane     A mixture of R-32, R-125, and R-134a
R-454B   Difluoromethane and 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene     HFOs blend of refrigerants Difluoromethane (R-32) and 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene (R-1234yf).[74][75][76][77]
R-513A   An HFO/HFC blend (56% R-1234yf/44%R-134a)     May replace R-134a as an interim alternative[78]
R-514A   HFO-1336mzz-Z/trans-1,2- dichloroethylene (t-DCE)     An hydrofluoroolefin (HFO)-based refrigerant to replace R-123 in low pressure centrifugal chillers for commercial and industrial applications.[79][80]

Refrigerant reclamation and disposal

[edit]
Main article: Refrigerant reclamation

Coolant and refrigerants are found throughout the industrialized world, in homes, offices, and factories, in devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, central air conditioning systems (HVAC), freezers, and dehumidifiers. When these units are serviced, there is a risk that refrigerant gas will be vented into the atmosphere either accidentally or intentionally, hence the creation of technician training and certification programs in order to ensure that the material is conserved and managed safely. Mistreatment of these gases has been shown to deplete the ozone layer and is suspected to contribute to global warming.[81]

With the exception of isobutane and propane (R600a, R441A and R290), ammonia and CO2 under Section 608 of the United States' Clean Air Act it is illegal to knowingly release any refrigerants into the atmosphere.[82][83]

Refrigerant reclamation is the act of processing used refrigerant gas which has previously been used in some type of refrigeration loop such that it meets specifications for new refrigerant gas. In the United States, the Clean Air Act of 1990 requires that used refrigerant be processed by a certified reclaimer, which must be licensed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the material must be recovered and delivered to the reclaimer by EPA-certified technicians.[84]

Classification of refrigerants

[edit]
R407C pressure-enthalpy diagram, isotherms between the two saturation lines
Main article: List of refrigerants

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:[citation needed]

  • Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
  • Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be cooled.
  • Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can also be classified into many categories.

R numbering system

[edit]

The R- numbering system was developed by DuPont (which owned the Freon trademark), and systematically identifies the molecular structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. ASHRAE has since set guidelines for the numbering system as follows:[85]

R-X1X2X3X4

  • X1 = Number of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds (omit if zero)
  • X2 = Number of carbon atoms minus 1 (omit if zero)
  • X3 = Number of hydrogen atoms plus 1
  • X4 = Number of fluorine atoms

Series

[edit]
  • R-xx Methane Series
  • R-1xx Ethane Series
  • R-2xx Propane Series
  • R-4xx Zeotropic blend
  • R-5xx Azeotropic blend
  • R-6xx Saturated hydrocarbons (except for propane which is R-290)
  • R-7xx Inorganic Compounds with a molar mass < 100
  • R-7xxx Inorganic Compounds with a molar mass ≥ 100

Ethane Derived Chains

[edit]
  • Number Only Most symmetrical isomer
  • Lower Case Suffix (a, b, c, etc.) indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers

Propane Derived Chains

[edit]
  • Number Only If only one isomer exists; otherwise:
  • First lower case suffix (a-f):
    • a Suffix Cl2 central carbon substitution
    • b Suffix Cl, F central carbon substitution
    • c Suffix F2 central carbon substitution
    • d Suffix Cl, H central carbon substitution
    • e Suffix F, H central carbon substitution
    • f Suffix H2 central carbon substitution
  • 2nd Lower Case Suffix (a, b, c, etc.) Indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers

Propene derivatives

[edit]
  • First lower case suffix (x, y, z):
    • x Suffix Cl substitution on central atom
    • y Suffix F substitution on central atom
    • z Suffix H substitution on central atom
  • Second lower case suffix (a-f):
    • a Suffix =CCl2 methylene substitution
    • b Suffix =CClF methylene substitution
    • c Suffix =CF2 methylene substitution
    • d Suffix =CHCl methylene substitution
    • e Suffix =CHF methylene substitution
    • f Suffix =CH2 methylene substitution

Blends

[edit]
  • Upper Case Suffix (A, B, C, etc.) Same blend with different compositions of refrigerants

Miscellaneous

[edit]
  • R-Cxxx Cyclic compound
  • R-Exxx Ether group is present
  • R-CExxx Cyclic compound with an ether group
  • R-4xx/5xx + Upper Case Suffix (A, B, C, etc.) Same blend with different composition of refrigerants
  • R-6xx + Lower Case Letter Indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers
  • 7xx/7xxx + Upper Case Letter Same molar mass, different compound
  • R-xxxxB# Bromine is present with the number after B indicating how many bromine atoms
  • R-xxxxI# Iodine is present with the number after I indicating how many iodine atoms
  • R-xxx(E) Trans Molecule
  • R-xxx(Z) Cis Molecule

For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane.

The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a "Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds, such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using abbreviations HFC- for hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences among these groups.[citation needed]

Refrigerant safety

[edit]

ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, assigns safety classifications to refrigerants based upon toxicity and flammability.

Using safety information provided by producers, ASHRAE assigns a capital letter to indicate toxicity and a number to indicate flammability. The letter "A" is the least toxic and the number 1 is the least flammable.[86]

See also

[edit]
  • Brine (Refrigerant)
  • Section 608
  • List of Refrigerants

References

[edit]
  1. ^ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). "Update on New Refrigerants Designations and Safety Classifications" (PDF). ASHRAE. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  2. ^ "Phaseout of Class II Ozone-Depleting Substances". US Environmental Protection Agency. 22 July 2015. Retrieved October 6, 2024.
  3. ^ "Protecting Our Climate by Reducing Use of HFCs". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 8 February 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  4. ^ a b Pearson, S. Forbes. "Refrigerants Past, Present and Future" (PDF). R744. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-13. Retrieved 2021-03-30.
  5. ^ a b c "Finally, a replacement for R123?". Cooling Post. 17 October 2013.
  6. ^ https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/download/3297/1244/
  7. ^ a b Tomczyk, John (1 May 2017). "What's the Latest with R-404A?". achrnews.com.
  8. ^ Molina, Mario J.; Rowland, F. S (28 June 1974). "Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine catalysed destruction of ozone" (PDF). Nature. 249: 810–812. doi:10.1038/249810a0. Retrieved October 6, 2024.
  9. ^ National Research Council (1976). Halocarbons: Effects on Stratospheric Ozone. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/19978. ISBN 978-0-309-02532-4. Retrieved October 6, 2024.
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  25. ^ "The truth about new automotive A/C refrigerant R1234YF". 25 July 2018.
  26. ^ Kontomaris, Konstantinos (2014). "HFO-1336mzz-Z: High Temperature Chemical Stability and Use as A Working Fluid in Organic Rankine Cycles". International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference. Paper 1525
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  34. ^ Gunkel, Christoph (13 September 2013). "Öko-Coup aus Ostdeutschland". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 4 September 2015.
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  36. ^ Benedick, Richard Elliot Ozone Diplomacy Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 1991.
  37. ^ Honeywell International, Inc. (2010-07-09). "Comment on EPA Proposed Rule Office of Air and Radiation Proposed Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Protection of Stratospheric Ozone: Listing of Substitutes for Ozone-Depleting Substances – Hydrocarbon Refrigerants" (PDF).
  38. ^ "Discurso de Frank Guggenheim no lançamento do Greenfreeze | Brasil". Greenpeace.org. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  39. ^ "Der Greenfreeze - endlich in den USA angekommen". Greenpeace.de (in German). 28 December 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  40. ^ "Complying With The Section 608 Refrigerant Recycling Rule | Ozone Layer Protection - Regulatory Programs". Epa.gov. 21 April 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  41. ^ a b "Greenfreeze: a Revolution in Domestic Refrigeration". ecomall.com. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  42. ^ "Company background". Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2021-03-15.
  43. ^ Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate System: issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons (Report). IPCC/TEAP. 2005.
  44. ^ Crowley, Thomas J. (2000). "Causes of Climate Change over the Past 1000 Years". Science. 289 (5477): 270–277. Bibcode:2000Sci...289..270C. doi:10.1126/science.289.5477.270. PMID 10894770.
  45. ^ "2010 to 2015 government policy: environmental quality". GOV.UK. 8 May 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  46. ^ "PepsiCo Brings First Climate-Friendly Vending Machines to the U.S." phx.corporate-ir.net. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  47. ^ "Climate-Friendly Greenfreezers Come to the United States". WNBC. 2 October 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  48. ^ Data, Reports and (7 August 2020). "Natural Refrigerants Market To Reach USD 2.88 Billion By 2027 | Reports and Data". GlobeNewswire News Room (Press release). Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  49. ^ Harris, Catharine. "Anti-inhalant Abuse Campaign Targets Building Codes: 'Huffing’ of Air Conditioning Refrigerant a Dangerous Risk." The Nation's Health. American Public Health Association, 2010. Web. 5 December 2010. https://www.thenationshealth.org/content/39/4/20
  50. ^ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch7 2021
  51. ^ "GreenFreeze". Greenpeace.
  52. ^ "Significant New Alternatives Program: Substitutes in Household Refrigerators and Freezers". Epa.gov. 13 November 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  53. ^ Berwald, Juli (29 April 2019). "One overlooked way to fight climate change? Dispose of old CFCs". National Geographic - Environment. Archived from the original on April 29, 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
  54. ^ Butler J. and Montzka S. (2020). "The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI)". NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories.
  55. ^ Environment, U. N. (31 October 2019). "New guidelines for air conditioners and refrigerators set to tackle climate change". UN Environment. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  56. ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth; Lehren, Andrew (20 June 2011). "Relief in Every Window, but Global Worry Too". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
  57. ^ a b Yadav et al 2022
  58. ^ a b c BSRIA 2020
  59. ^ a b c d e f g h IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch8 2013, pp. 714, 731–737
  60. ^ "European Commission on retrofit refrigerants for stationary applications" (PDF). Archived from the original on August 5, 2009. Retrieved 2010-10-29.cite web: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  61. ^ "Protection of Stratospheric Ozone: Hydrocarbon Refrigerants" (PDF). Environment Protection Agency. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
  62. ^ ARB 2022
  63. ^ GM to Introduce HFO-1234yf AC Refrigerant in 2013 US Models
  64. ^ "The Coca-Cola Company Announces Adoption of HFC-Free Insulation in Refrigeration Units to Combat Global Warming". The Coca-Cola Company. 5 June 2006. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2007.
  65. ^ "Modine reinforces its CO2 research efforts". R744.com. 28 June 2007. Archived from the original on 10 February 2008.
  66. ^ Longo, Giovanni A.; Mancin, Simone; Righetti, Giulia; Zilio, Claudio (2015). "HFC32 vaporisation inside a Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger (BPHE): Experimental measurements and IR thermography analysis". International Journal of Refrigeration. 57: 77–86. doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.04.017.
  67. ^ May 2010 TEAP XXI/9 Task Force Report
  68. ^ "Protecting Our Climate by Reducing Use of HFCs". US Environmental Protection Agency. 8 February 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  69. ^ "Background on HFCs and the AIM Act". www.usepa.gov. US EPA. March 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2024.
  70. ^ "1:Update on Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs) and Other Gases of Interest to the Montreal Protocol". Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 2018 (PDF) (Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project–Report No. 58 ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization. 2018. p. 1.10. ISBN 978-1-7329317-1-8. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  71. ^ [1] Chemours M099 as R22 Replacement
  72. ^ [2] Management of HCFC-123 through the Phaseout and Beyond | EPA | Published August 2020 | Retrieved Dec. 18, 2021
  73. ^ [3] Refrigerant R11 (R-11), Freon 11 (Freon R-11) Properties & Replacement
  74. ^ [4] R-454B XL41 refrigerant fact & info sheet
  75. ^ [5] R-454B emerges as a replacement for R-410A | ACHR News (Air Conditioning, Heating, Refrigeration News)
  76. ^ [6] Ccarrier introduces [R-454B] Puron Advance™ as the next generation refrigerant for ducted residential, light commercial products in North America | Indianapolis - 19 December 2018
  77. ^ [7] Johnson Controls selects R-454B as future refrigerant for new HVAC equipment | 27 May 2021
  78. ^ [8] A conversation on refrigerants | ASHRAE Journal, March 2021 | page 30, column 1, paragraph 2
  79. ^ [9] Opteon™ XP30 (R-514A) refrigerant
  80. ^ [10] Trane adopts new low GWP refrigerant R514A | 15 June 2016
  81. ^ "Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1998 - Executive Summary". 18 August 2000. Archived from the original on 18 August 2000.
  82. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions on Section 608". Environment Protection Agency. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  83. ^ "US hydrocarbons". Retrieved 5 August 2018.
  84. ^ "42 U.S. Code § 7671g - National recycling and emission reduction program". LII / Legal Information Institute.
  85. ^ ASHRAE; UNEP (Nov 2022). "Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants" (PDF). ASHRAE. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  86. ^ "Update on New Refrigerants Designations and Safety Classifications" (PDF). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). April 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 13, 2023. Retrieved October 22, 2022.
 

Sources

[edit]

IPCC reports

[edit]
  • IPCC (2013). Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9. (pb: 978-1-107-66182-0). Fifth Assessment Report - Climate Change 2013
    • Myhre, G.; Shindell, D.; Bréon, F.-M.; Collins, W.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 8: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing" (PDF). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. pp. 659–740.
  • IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).
  • Forster, Piers; Storelvmo, Trude (2021). "Chapter 7: The Earth's Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.

Other

[edit]
  • "High GWP refrigerants". California Air Resources Board. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  • "BSRIA's view on refrigerant trends in AC and Heat Pump segments". 2020. Retrieved 2022-02-14.
  • Yadav, Saurabh; Liu, Jie; Kim, Sung Chul (2022). "A comprehensive study on 21st-century refrigerants - R290 and R1234yf: A review". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 122: 121947. Bibcode:2022IJHMT.18221947Y. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121947. S2CID 240534198.
[edit]
  • US Environmental Protection Agency page on the GWPs of various substances
  • Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies
  • International Institute of Refrigeration Archived 2018-09-25 at the Wayback Machine
 

 

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Housing portal
 

A mobile home (also known as a house trailer, park home, trailer, or trailer home) is a prefabricated structure, built in a factory on a permanently attached chassis before being transported to site (either by being towed or on a trailer). Used as permanent homes, or for holiday or temporary accommodation, they are often left permanently or semi-permanently in one place, but can be moved, and may be required to move from time to time for legal reasons.

Mobile homes share the same historic origins as travel trailers, but today the two are very different, with travel trailers being used primarily as temporary or vacation homes. Behind the cosmetic work fitted at installation to hide the base, mobile homes have strong trailer frames, axles, wheels, and tow-hitches.

History

[edit]

In the United States, this form of housing goes back to the early years of cars and motorized highway travel.[1] It was derived from the travel trailer (often referred to during the early years as "house trailers" or "trailer coaches"), a small unit with wheels attached permanently, often used for camping or extended travel. The original rationale for this type of housing was its mobility. Units were initially marketed primarily to people whose lifestyle required mobility. However, in the 1950s, the homes began to be marketed primarily as an inexpensive form of housing designed to be set up and left in a location for long periods of time or even permanently installed with a masonry foundation. Previously, units had been eight feet or fewer in width, but in 1956, the 10-foot (3.0 m) wide home ("ten-wide") was introduced, along with the new term "mobile home".[2]

The homes were given a rectangular shape, made from pre-painted aluminum panels, rather than the streamlined shape of travel trailers, which were usually painted after assembly. All of this helped increase the difference between these homes and home/travel trailers. The smaller, "eight-wide" units could be moved simply with a car, but the larger, wider units ("ten-wide", and, later, "twelve-wide") usually required the services of a professional trucking company, and, often, a special moving permit from a state highway department. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the homes were made even longer and wider, making the mobility of the units more difficult. Nowadays, when a factory-built home is moved to a location, it is usually kept there permanently and the mobility of the units has considerably decreased. In some states, mobile homes have been taxed as personal property if the wheels remain attached, but as real estate if the wheels are removed. Removal of the tongue and axles may also be a requirement for real estate classification.

Manufactured home

[edit]
Main article: Manufactured housing
Example of a modern manufactured home in New Alexandria, Pennsylvania. 28 by 60 feet (8.5 m × 18.3 m)
Manufactured home foundation

Mobile homes built in the United States since June 1976, legally referred to as manufactured homes, are required to meet FHA certification requirements and come with attached metal certification tags. Mobile homes permanently installed on owned land are rarely mortgageable, whereas FHA code manufactured homes are mortgageable through VA, FHA, and Fannie Mae.

Many people who could not afford a traditional site-built home, or did not desire to commit to spending a large sum of money on housing, began to see factory-built homes as a viable alternative for long-term housing needs. The units were often marketed as an alternative to apartment rental. However, the tendency of the units of this era to depreciate rapidly in resale value[citation needed] made using them as collateral for loans much riskier than traditional home loans. Terms were usually limited to less than the thirty-year term typical of the general home-loan market, and interest rates were considerably higher.[citation needed] In that way, mobile home loans resembled motor vehicle loans more than traditional home mortgage loans.

Construction and sizes

[edit]
Exterior wall assemblies being set in place during manufacture

Mobile homes come in two major sizes, single-wides and double-wides. Single-wides are 18 feet (5.5 m) or less in width and 90 feet (27 m) or less in length and can be towed to their site as a single unit. Double-wides are 20 feet (6.1 m) or more wide and are 90 feet (27 m) in length or less and are towed to their site in two separate units, which are then joined. Triple-wides and even homes with four, five, or more units are also built but less frequently.

While site-built homes are rarely moved, single-wide owners often "trade" or sell their home to a dealer in the form of the reduction of the purchase of a new home. These "used" homes are either re-sold to new owners or to park owners who use them as inexpensive rental units. Single-wides are more likely to be traded than double-wides because removing them from the site is easier. In fact, only about 5% of all double-wides will ever be moved.[citation needed]

While an EF1 tornado might cause minor damage to a site-built home, it could do significant damage to a factory-built home, especially an older model or one that is not properly secured. Also, structural components (such as windows) are typically weaker than those in site-built homes.[3] 70 miles per hour (110 km/h) winds can destroy a mobile home in a matter of minutes. Many brands offer optional hurricane straps, which can be used to tie the home to anchors embedded in the ground.

Regulations

[edit]

United States

[edit]
Home struck by tornado

In the United States, mobile homes are regulated by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), via the Federal National Manufactured Housing Construction and Safety Standards Act of 1974. This national regulation has allowed many manufacturers to distribute nationwide because they are immune to the jurisdiction of local building authorities.[4] [5]: 1  By contrast, producers of modular homes must abide by state and local building codes. There are, however, wind zones adopted by HUD that home builders must follow. For example, statewide, Florida is at least wind zone 2. South Florida is wind zone 3, the strongest wind zone. After Hurricane Andrew in 1992, new standards were adopted for home construction. The codes for building within these wind zones were significantly amended, which has greatly increased their durability. During the 2004 hurricanes in Florida, these standards were put to the test, with great success. Yet, older models continue to face the exposed risk to high winds because of the attachments applied such as carports, porch and screen room additions. Such areas are exposed to "wind capture" which apply extreme force to the underside of the integrated roof panel systems, ripping the fasteners through the roof pan causing a series of events which destroys the main roof system and the home.

The popularity of the factory-built homes caused complications the legal system was not prepared to handle. Originally, factory-built homes tended to be taxed as vehicles rather than real estate, which resulted in very low property tax rates for their inhabitants. That caused local governments to reclassify them for taxation purposes.

However, even with that change, rapid depreciation often resulted in the home occupants paying far less in property taxes than had been anticipated and budgeted. The ability to move many factory-built homes rapidly into a relatively small area resulted in strains to the infrastructure and governmental services of the affected areas, such as inadequate water pressure and sewage disposal, and highway congestion. That led jurisdictions to begin placing limitations on the size and density of developments.

Early homes, even those that were well-maintained, tended to depreciate over time, much like motor vehicles. That is in contrast to site-built homes which include the land they are built on and tend to appreciate in value. The arrival of mobile homes in an area tended to be regarded with alarm, in part because of the devaluation of the housing potentially spreading to preexisting structures.

This combination of factors has caused most jurisdictions to place zoning regulations on the areas in which factory-built homes are placed, and limitations on the number and density of homes permitted on any given site. Other restrictions, such as minimum size requirements, limitations on exterior colors and finishes, and foundation mandates have also been enacted. There are many jurisdictions that will not allow the placement of any additional factory-built homes. Others have strongly limited or forbidden all single-wide models, which tend to depreciate more rapidly than modern double-wide models.

Apart from all the practical issues described above, there is also the constant discussion about legal fixture and chattels and so the legal status of a trailer is or could be affected by its incorporation to the land or not. This sometimes involves such factors as whether or not the wheels have been removed.

North Carolina

[edit]

The North Carolina Board of Transportation allowed 14-foot-wide homes on the state's roads, but until January 1997, 16-foot-wide homes were not allowed. 41 states allowed 16-foot-wide homes, but they were not sold in North Carolina. Under a trial program approved January 10, 1997, the wider homes could be delivered on specific roads at certain times of day and travel 10 mph below the speed limit, with escort vehicles in front and behind.[6][7] Eventually, all homes had to leave the state on interstate highways.[8]

In December 1997, a study showed that the wider homes could be delivered safely, but some opponents still wanted the program to end.[9] On December 2, 1999, the NC Manufactured Housing Institute asked the state Board of Transportation to expand the program to allow deliveries of 16-foot-wide homes within North Carolina.[8] A month later, the board extended the pilot program by three months but did not vote to allow shipments within the state.[10] In June 2000, the board voted to allow 16-foot-side homes to be shipped to other states on more two-lane roads, and to allow shipments in the state east of US 220. A third escort was required, including a law enforcement officer on two-lane roads.[11]

New York

[edit]

In New York State, the Homes and Community Renewal agency tracks mobile home parks and provides regulations concerning them. For example, the agency requires park owners to provide residents with a $15,000 grant if residents are forced to move when the land is transferred to a new owner. Residents are also granted the right of first refusal for a sale of the park, however, if the owner does not evict tenants for five years, the land sale can go ahead. State law also restricts the annual increase in land lot fee to a cap of 3 percent, unless the landowner demonstrates hardship in a local court, and can then raise the land lot fee by up to 6 percent in a year.[12]

Mobile home parks

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Main article: Trailer park
Meadow Lanes Estates Mobile Home Park, Ames, Iowa, August 2010, during a flood

Mobile homes are often sited in land lease communities known as trailer parks (also 'trailer courts', 'mobile home parks', 'mobile home communities', 'manufactured home communities', 'factory-built home communities' etc.); these communities allow homeowners to rent space on which to place a home. In addition to providing space, the site often provides basic utilities such as water, sewer, electricity, or natural gas and other amenities such as mowing, garbage removal, community rooms, pools, and playgrounds.

There are over 38,000[13] trailer parks in the United States ranging in size from 5 to over 1,000 home sites. Although most parks appeal to meeting basic housing needs, some communities specialize towards certain segments of the market. One subset of mobile home parks, retirement communities, restrict residents to those age 55 and older. Another subset of mobile home parks, seasonal communities, are located in popular vacation destinations or are used as a location for summer homes. In New York State, as of 2019, there were 1,811 parks with 83,929 homes.[12]

Newer homes, particularly double-wides, tend to be built to much higher standards than their predecessors and meet the building codes applicable to most areas. That has led to a reduction in the rate of value depreciation of most used units.[14]

Additionally, modern homes tend to be built from materials similar to those used in site-built homes rather than inferior, lighter-weight materials. They are also more likely to physically resemble site-built homes. Often, the primary differentiation in appearance is that factory-built homes tend to have less of a roof slope so that they can be readily transported underneath bridges and overpasses.[citation needed]

The number of double-wide units sold exceeds the number of single-wides, which is due in part to the aforementioned zoning restrictions. Another reason for higher sales is the spaciousness of double-wide units, which are now comparable to site-built homes. Single-wide units are still popular primarily in rural areas, where there are fewer restrictions. They are frequently used as temporary housing in areas affected by natural disasters when restrictions are temporarily waived.[citation needed]

Another recent trend has been parks in which the owner of the mobile home owns the lot on which their unit is parked. Some of these communities simply provide land in a homogeneous neighborhood, but others are operated more like condominiums with club homes complete with swimming pools and meeting rooms which are shared by all of the residents, who are required to pay membership fees and dues.

By country

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Mobile home (or mobile-homes) are used in many European campgrounds to refer to fixed caravans, purpose-built cabins, and even large tents, which are rented by the week or even year-round as cheap accommodation, similar to the US concept of a trailer park. Like many other US loanwords, the term is not used widely in Britain.[citation needed]

United Kingdom

[edit]
A mobile home marketed as a holiday home

Mobile Homes or Static Caravans are popular across the United Kingdom. They are more commonly referred to as Park Homes or Leisure Lodges, depending on if they are marketed as a residential dwelling or as a second holiday home residence.

Residential Mobile homes (park homes) are built to the BS3632 standard. This standard is issued by the British Standards Institute. The institute is a UK body who produce a range of standards for businesses and products to ensure they are fit for purpose. The majority of residential parks in the UK have a minimum age limit for their residents, and are generally marketed as retirement or semi-retirement parks. Holiday Homes, static caravans or holiday lodges aren't required to be built to BS3632 standards, but many are built to the standard.

A static caravan park on the cliffs above Beer, Devon, England

In addition to mobile homes, static caravans are popular across the UK. Static caravans have wheels and a rudimentary chassis with no suspension or brakes and are therefore transported on the back of large flatbed lorries, the axle and wheels being used for movement to the final location when the static caravan is moved by tractor or 4×4. A static caravan normally stays on a single plot for many years and has many of the modern conveniences normally found in a home.

Mobile homes are designed and constructed to be transportable by road in one or two sections. Mobile homes are no larger than 20 m × 6.8 m (65 ft 7 in × 22 ft 4 in) with an internal maximum height of 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in). Legally, mobile homes can still be defined as "caravans".

Static holiday caravans generally have sleeping accommodation for 6 to 10 people in 2, 3 or 4 bedrooms and on convertible seating in the lounge referred to as a 'pull out bed'. They tend towards a fairly "open-plan" layout, and while some units are double glazed and centrally heated for year-round use, cheaper models without double glazing or central heating are available for mainly summer use. Static caravan holiday homes are intended for leisure use and are available in 10 and 12 ft (3.0 and 3.7 m) widths, a small number in 13 and 14 ft (4.0 and 4.3 m) widths, and a few 16 ft (4.9 m) wide, consisting of two 8 ft (2.4 m) wide units joined. Generally, holiday homes are clad in painted steel panels, but can be clad in PVC, timber or composite materials. Static caravans are sited on caravan parks where the park operator of the site leases a plot to the caravan owner. There are many holiday parks in the UK in which one's own static caravan can be owned. There are a few of these parks in areas that are prone to flooding and anyone considering buying a sited static caravan needs to take particular care in checking that their site is not liable to flooding.

Static caravans can be rented on an ad-hoc basis or purchased. Purchase prices range from £25,000 to £100,000. Once purchased, static caravans have various ongoing costs including insurance, site fees, local authority rates, utility charges, winterisation and depreciation. Depending on the type of caravan and the park these costs can range from £1,000 to £40,000 per year.[15] Some park owners used to have unfair conditions in their lease contracts but the Office of Fair Trading has produced a guidance document available for download called Unfair Terms in Holiday Caravan Agreements which aims to stop unfair practices.

Israel

[edit]
Main article: Caravan (Israel)
Posting of caravan in Mitzpe Hila, Israel, 1982

Many Israeli settlements and outposts are originally composed of caravans (Hebrew: קראוואן caravan; pl. קראוואנים, caravanim). They are constructed of light metal, are not insulated but can be outfitted with heating and air-conditioning units, water lines, recessed lighting, and floor tiling to function in a full-service capacity. Starting in 2005, prefabricated homes, named caravillas (Hebrew: קרווילה), a portmanteau of the words caravan, and villa, begin to replace mobile homes in many Israeli settlements.

Difference from modular homes

[edit]
Main article: Modular home

Because of similarities in the manufacturing process, some companies build both types in their factories. Modular homes are transported on flatbed trucks rather than being towed, and lack axles and an automotive-type frame. However, some modular homes are towed behind a semi-truck or toter on a frame similar to that of a trailer. The home is usually in two pieces and is hauled by two separate trucks. Each frame has five or more axles, depending on the size of the home. Once the home has reached its location, the axles and the tongue of the frame are then removed, and the home is set on a concrete foundation by a large crane.

Both styles are commonly referred to as factory-built housing, but that term's technical use is restricted to a class of homes regulated by the Federal National Mfd. Housing Construction and Safety Standards Act of 1974.

Most zoning restrictions on the homes have been found to be inapplicable or only applicable to modular homes. That occurs often after considerable litigation on the topic by affected jurisdictions and by plaintiffs failing to ascertain the difference. Most modern modulars, once fully assembled, are indistinguishable from site-built homes. Their roofs are usually transported as separate units. Newer modulars also come with roofs that can be raised during the setting process with cranes. There are also modulars with 2 to 4 storeys.

[edit]
  • Construction starts with the frame.
    Construction starts with the frame.
  • Interior wall assemblies are attached.
    Interior wall assemblies are attached.
  • Roof assembly is set atop home.
    Roof assembly is set atop home.
  • Drywall is completed.
    Drywall is completed.
  • Home is ready for delivery to site.
    Home is ready for delivery to site.
  • A modern "triple wide" home, designed to look like an adobe home
    A modern "triple wide" home, designed to look like an adobe home
  • A mobile home is being moved, California.
    A mobile home is being moved, California.
  • A mobile home being prepared for transport
    A mobile home being prepared for transport

See also

[edit]
  • All Parks Alliance for Change
  • Campervan
  • Construction trailer
  • Houseboat
  • Manufactured housing
  • Modular home
  • Motorhome
  • Nomadic wagons
  • Recreational vehicle
  • Reefer container housing units
  • Small house movement
  • Trailer (vehicle)
  • Trailer Park Boys
  • Trailer trash
  • Vardo
  • Prefabricated home

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Part 17, Mobile Home Parks". ny.gov.
  2. ^ "Mobile Manufactured Homes". ct.gov. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
  3. ^ "Caravan Repairs? Great Caravan Repair Deals!". canterburycaravans.com.au.
  4. ^ "Titles for Mobile Homes". AAA Digest of Motor Laws.
  5. ^ Andrews, Jeff (January 29, 2018). "HUD to explore deregulating manufactured housing". Curbed. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2019-04-19.
  6. ^ Hackett, Thomas (January 11, 1997). "Extra-wide homes to take to the road". News & Observer. p. A3.
  7. ^ Mitchell, Kirsten B. (January 10, 1997). "Wider trailer transport OK'd". Star-News. p. 1A.
  8. ^ a b Whitacre, Dianne (December 2, 1999). "Mobile-Home Makers Look to Squeeze on N.C. Roads". The Charlotte Observer. p. 1C.
  9. ^ "Study: Keep Curbs on Transporting Wide Mobile Homes". The Charlotte Observer. December 1, 1997. p. 4C.
  10. ^ Bonner, Lynn (January 7, 2000). "Program for wide mobile homes extended". News & Observer. p. A3.
  11. ^ "Wide mobile homes given final approval". News & Observer. June 3, 2000. p. A3.
  12. ^ a b Liberatore, Wendy (January 23, 2022). "Saratoga County's mobile home parks - a sign of an affordable housing crisis". www.timesunion.com. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
  13. ^ "Database of Mobile Home Parks in the United States". Retrieved 2009-02-17.
  14. ^ "Homes". Answers.com. Retrieved 2006-09-12.
  15. ^ "Cost of a static caravan or lodge". StaticCaravanExpert. 28 December 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-07.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Benson, J. E. (1990). Good neighbors: Ethnic relations in Garden City trailer courts. Urban Anthropology,19, 361–386.
  • Burch-Brown, C. (1996). Trailers. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Text by David Rigsbee.
  • Geisler, C. C., & Mitsuda, H. (1987). Mobile-home growth, regulation, and discrimination in upstate New York. Rural Sociology, 52, 532–543.
  • Hart, J. F., Rhodes, M. J., & Morgan, J. T. (2002). The unknown world of the mobile home. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • MacTavish, K. A., & Salamon, S. (2001). Mobile home park on the prairie: A new rural community form. Rural Sociology, 66, 487–506.
  • Moore, B. (2006). Trailer trash: The world of trailers and mobile homes in the Southwest. Laughlin: Route 66 Magazine.
  • Thornburg, D. A. (1991). Galloping bungalows: The rise and demise of the American house trailer. Hamden: Archon Books.
  • Wallis, A. D. (1991). Wheel estate: The rise and decline of mobile homes. New York: Oxford University Press.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mobile homes.
  • Regulating body in the UK
  • US Federal Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards

 

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